Anthropometric, dietary, and nutritional outcomes of vegetarian and vegan diets in childhood: A narrative review and recommendations for adequate nutrition
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Submitted
September 25, 2024
Published
April 3, 2025
Keywords:
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Anthropometry, Child Nutrition, Dietary Intake, Nutritional Status, Vegetarian Diet, Veganism
Abstract
Background: The adoption of plant-based diets, including vegetarian and vegan variations, is experiencing a notable increase among pediatric populations, driven by ethical, environmental, and health considerations. However, the appropriateness of these dietary patterns, particularly in relation to nutritional sufficiency, remains a subject of scholarly discourse.
Aims: This narrative review aims to synthesize the anthropometric, dietary, and nutritional aspects of vegetarian and vegan diets in children and to provide evidence-based guidelines for ensuring nutritional adequacy while adhering to a vegetarian lifestyle.
Methods: A comprehensive literature search was conducted across PubMed, Science Direct, Embase, Scopus, Web of Science, and Google Scholar up to February 2024. Search terms included variations of "vegetarian" and "vegan" in conjunction with "infant," "child," "anthropometric," and "nutritional intake." Studies were selected based on their relevance to dietary intake, nutritional status, and health, while excluding investigations focused on macrobiotic dietary patterns.
Results: A total of 278 articles were initially identified, of which 38 underwent full-text review. Sixteen studies met the inclusion criteria. Anthropometric data indicated that vegetarian and vegan children generally exhibit similar growth patterns to their omnivorous peers, though some studies show slightly lower height and weight percentiles. Dietary intake analysis revealed a tendency for vegetarian diets to exhibit higher consumption of fruits, vegetables, and fiber but potentially lower intakes of calorie energy, protein, and critical micronutrients such as iron, zinc, and calcium. Despite some deficiencies, the availability of contemporary food products and nutritional supplements have contributed to improved nutrient availability.
Conclusions: While vegetarian dietary patterns can support healthy growth and development in children, meticulous dietary planning is essential to avoid the risk of nutritional deficiencies. The availability of specialized vegetarian products and fortified foods has enhanced dietary outcomes. Sustained professional guidance from healthcare professionals is crucial for optimizing nutritional intake and ensuring that vegetarian diets meet the developmental needs of children. Future research should persist in addressing knowledge gaps and refining dietary recommendations.
Keywords: Anthropometry, Child Nutrition, Dietary Intake, Nutritional Status, Vegetarian Diet, Veganism.
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References
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Alexy, U., Janz, N., & Kersting, M. (2017). Food and meals in vegetarian children and adolescents. In Vegetarian and Plant-Based Diets in Health and Disease Prevention (pp. 549–564). Elsevier. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-803968-7.00031-9
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Baroni, L., Goggi, S., Battaglino, R., Berveglieri, M., Fasan, I., Filippin, D., Griffith, P., Rizzo, G., Tomasini, C., Tosatti, M., & Battino, M. (2018). Vegan nutrition for mothers and children: Practical tools for healthcare providers. Nutrients, 11(1), 5. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu11010005
Baroni, L., Goggi, S., & Battino, M. (2019). Planning well-balanced vegetarian diets in infants, children, and adolescents: The VegPlate Junior. Journal of the Academy of Nutrition and Dietetics, 119(7), 1067–1074. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jand.2018.06.008
Cayllante, J. P. (2014). Vegetarianismo. Revista de Actualización Clínica Investiga, 42, 2195–2199.
Del Bo, C., Riso, P., Gardana, C., Brusamolino, A., Battezzati, A., & Ciappellano, S. (2019). Effect of two different sublingual dosages of vitamin B 12 on cobalamin nutritional status in vegans and vegetarians with a marginal deficiency: A randomized controlled trial. Clinical Nutrition, 38(2), 575–583. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.clnu.2018.02.008
Desmond, M. A., Fewtrell, M. S., & Wells, J. C. K. (2024). Plant-based diets in children: Secular trends, health outcomes, and a roadmap for urgent practice recommendations and research—A Systematic review. Nutrients, 16(5), 723. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu16050723
Fewtrell, M., Bronsky, J., Campoy, C., Domellöf, M., Embleton, N., Fidler Mis, N., Hojsak, I., Hulst, J. M., Indrio, F., Lapillonne, A., & Molgaard, C. (2017). Complementary Feeding. Journal of Pediatric Gastroenterology and Nutrition, 64(1), 119–132. https://doi.org/10.1097/MPG.0000000000001454
Fraser, G. E. (2009). Vegetarian diets: What do we know of their effects on common chronic diseases? The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition, 89(5), 1607S-1612S. https://doi.org/10.3945/AJCN.2009.26736K
Gibson, R. S., Heath, A.-L. M., & Szymlek-Gay, E. A. (2014). Is iron and zinc nutrition a concern for vegetarian infants and young children in industrialized countries? The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition, 100(suppl_1), 459S-468S. https://doi.org/10.3945/ajcn.113.071241
Haddad, E. H., & Tanzman, J. S. (2003). What do vegetarians in the United States eat? American Journal of Clinical Nutrition, 78(3), 626S-632S. https://doi.org/10.1093/ajcn/78.3.626S
Hebbelinck, M., Clarys, P., & De Malsche, A. (1999). Growth, development, and physical fitness of Flemish vegetarian children, adolescents, and young adults. The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition, 70(3), 579s–585s. https://doi.org/10.1093/ajcn/70.3.579s
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Kiely, M. E. (2021). Risks and benefits of vegan and vegetarian diets in children. Proceedings of the Nutrition Society, 80(2), 159–164. https://doi.org/10.1017/S002966512100001X
Kirby, M., & Danner, E. (2009). Nutritional Deficiencies in children on restricted diets. Pediatric Clinics of North America, 56(5), 1085–1103. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pcl.2009.07.003
Krajčovičová-Kudláčková, M., Šimončič, R., Béderová, A., Grančičová, E., & Magálová, T. (1997a). Influence of vegetarian and mixed nutrition on selected haematological and biochemical parameters in children. Food / Nahrung, 41(5), 311–314. https://doi.org/10.1002/food.19970410513
Krajčovičová-Kudláčková, M., Šimončič, R., Béderová, A., & Klvanová, J. (1997b). Plasma fatty acid profile and alternative nutrition. Annals of Nutrition and Metabolism, 41(6), 365–370. https://doi.org/10.1159/000178008
Lemale, J., Mas, E., Jung, C., Bellaiche, M., & Tounian, P. (2019). Vegan diet in children and adolescents. Recommendations from the French-speaking Pediatric Hepatology, Gastroenterology and Nutrition Group (GFHGNP). Archives de Pédiatrie, 26(7), 442–450. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.arcped.2019.09.001
Leung, S., Lee, R., Sung, R., Luo, H., Kam, C., Yuen, M., Hjelm, M., & Lee, S. (2001). Growth and nutrition of Chinese vegetarian children in Hong Kong. Journal of Paediatrics and Child Health, 37(3), 247–253. https://doi.org/10.1046/j.1440-1754.2001.00647.x
Louzada, G. E., Barboza, D. R. S., Chanca, N. L., De Sousa Coutinho, J. V., Broedel, H. P., De Oliveira, J. V. X., De Oliveira, E. R., & Falsoni, R. M. P. (2023). Dieta vegana e vegetariana: Seus impactos na saúde infantil. Revista Ibero-Americana de Humanidades, Ciências e Educação, 1, 235–242. https://doi.org/10.51891/rease.v1i1.10510
Mangels, A. R., & Messina, V. (2001). Considerations in planning vegan diets. Journal of the American Dietetic Association, 101(6), 670–677. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0002-8223(01)00169-9
Melina, V., Craig, W., & Levin, S. (2016). Position of the Academy of Nutrition and Dietetics: Vegetarian Diets. Journal of the Academy of Nutrition and Dietetics, 116(12), 1970–1980. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jand.2016.09.025
Nathan, I., Hackett, A., & Kirby, S. (1997). A longitudinal study of the growth of matched pairs of vegetarian and omnivorous children, aged 7–11 years, in the North-West of England. European Journal of Clinical Nutrition, 51(1), 20–25. https://doi.org/10.1038/sj.ejcn.1600354
Neufingerl, N., & Eilander, A. (2023). Nutrient intake and status in children and adolescents consuming plant-based diets compared to meat-eaters: A systematic Rrview. Nutrients, 15(20), 4341. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu15204341
Newby, P. K. (2009). Plant foods and plant-based diets: Protective against childhood obesity? The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition, 89(5), 1572S-1587S. https://doi.org/10.3945/ajcn.2009.26736G
O’Connell, J. M., Dibley, M. J., Sierra, J., Wallace, B., Marks, J. S., & Yip, R. (1989). Growth of vegetarian children: The Farm Study. Pediatrics, 84(3), 475–481. https://doi.org/10.1542/peds.84.3.475
Orlich, M. J., Jaceldo-Siegl, K., Sabaté, J., Fan, J., Singh, P. N., & Fraser, G. E. (2014). Patterns of food consumption among vegetarians and non-vegetarians. British Journal of Nutrition, 112(10), 1644–1653. https://doi.org/10.1017/S000711451400261X
Page, M. J., McKenzie, J. E., Bossuyt, P. M., Boutron, I., Hoffmann, T. C., Mulrow, C. D., Shamseer, L., Tetzlaff, J. M., Akl, E. A., Brennan, S. E., Chou, R., Glanville, J., Grimshaw, J. M., Hróbjartsson, A., Lalu, M. M., Li, T., Loder, E. W., Mayo-Wilson, E., McDonald, S., … Moher, D. (2021). The PRISMA 2020 statement: An updated guideline for reporting systematic reviews. BMJ, 372, n71. https://doi.org/10.1136/bmj.n71
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Authors
Briana, D. G. R., Narváez Rivas , A. M., & Caro Roldan, M. Ángel. (2025). Anthropometric, dietary, and nutritional outcomes of vegetarian and vegan diets in childhood: A narrative review and recommendations for adequate nutrition. The North African Journal of Food and Nutrition Research, 9(19), 137–150. https://doi.org/10.51745/najfnr.9.19.137-150
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