The Role of Barley, Sorghum, Rice, and Maize in North African Cuisine
Article Sidebar
Submitted
March 27, 2025
Published
July 11, 2025
Abstract
Background: Cereal-based foods have been a cornerstone of North African diets for centuries, with grains such as barley, rice, maize, and sorghum holding significant importance for food security, nutritional well-being, and cultural identity.
Aims: This review systematically catalogs traditional cereal-based dishes prevalent across North Africa, specifically focusing on those derived from barley, rice, maize, and sorghum. The review further explores their profound cultural significance, nutritional value, and contemporary adaptations, thereby highlighting their potential relevance in modern dietary trends.
Methods: A comprehensive literature analysis was conducted across scholarly databases such as PubMed, Scopus, and Web of Science, supplemented by an examination of relevant ethnographic and culinary texts. The search strategy incorporated both keywords and controlled vocabulary terms to identify publications spanning from 2000 to May 2024, with no language restrictions (English, Arabic, and French publications were included). The analysis specifically concentrated on the traditional recipes, cooking methods, nutritional profiles, cultural significance, and historical contexts of traditional cereal-based foods indigenous to North Africa.
Results: The review elucidates the substantial diversity and versatility of traditional cereal-based dishes originating from Algeria, Morocco, Tunisia, Egypt, and Libya. These culinary preparations consistently demonstrate high nutritional value, serving as rich sources of essential nutrients such as dietary fiber, protein, and various vitamins. Furthermore, contemporary adaptations and innovative presentations of these traditional dishes present a viable pathway for their integration into health-conscious trends, making them suitable for contemporary diets.
Conclusions: The findings underscore that the strategic revival and modernization of traditional cereal-based foods offer an opportunity for the dual objectives of cultural preservation and enhanced environmental sustainability.
Keywords: Nutrition; Sustainability; Ethnic Foods, Cereals, Food Security.
Full text article
Generated from XML file
References
Abdallah, D. B., Charoo, N. A., & Elgorashi, A. S. (2016). Assessment of Pregelatinized Sorghum and Maize Starches as Superior Multi-functional Excipients. Journal of Pharmaceutical Innovation, 11(2), 143–155. https://doi.org/10.1007/S12247-016-9247-8
Abdelbost, L., Morel, M. H., Nascimento, T. P. do, Cameron, L. C., Bonicel, J., Larraz, M. F. S., & Mameri, H. (2023). Sorghum grain germination as a route to improve kafirin digestibility: Biochemical and label free proteomics insights. Food Chemistry, 424, 136407.https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodchem.2023.136407
Abdeldaiem, A. M., Ali, A. H., Mousa, A. H., Elkot, W. F., & Simal-Gandara, J. (2023). Ice cream supplemented with roasted and grilled corn powders: Physical properties, rheology, antioxidant activity, color, sensory evaluation, and production cost. International Journal of Gastronomy and Food Science, 32, 100692. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijgfs.2023.100692
Aboubacar, A., & Hamaker, B. R. (1999). Physicochemical properties of flours that relate to sorghum couscous quality. Cereal Chemistry, 76(2), 308–313. https://doi.org/10.1094/CCHEM.1999.76.2.308
Aboubacar, A., Yazici, N., & Hamaker, B. R. (2006). Extent of decortication and quality of flour, couscous and porridge made from different sorghum cultivars. International Journal of Food Science and Technology, 41(6), 698–703. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2621.2005.01138.x
Achli, S., Epule, T. E., Dhiba, D., Chehbouni, A., & Er-Raki, S. (2022). Vulnerability of Barley, Maize, and Wheat Yields to Variations in Growing Season Precipitation in Morocco. Applied Sciences 2022, Vol. 12, Page 3407, 12(7), 3407. https://doi.org/10.3390/app12073407
Adebo, O. A. (2020). African sorghum-based fermented foods: Past, current and future prospects. Nutrients, 12(4). https://doi.org/10.3390/nu12041111
Adebowale, O. J., Taylor, J. R. N., & de Kock, H. L. (2020). Stabilization of wholegrain sorghum flour and consequent potential improvement of food product sensory quality by microwave treatment of the kernels. LWT, 132. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.lwt.2020.109827
Adzqia, F., Suwonsichon, S., & Thongngam, M. (2023). Effects of White Sorghum Flour Levels on Physicochemical and Sensory Characteristics of Gluten-Free Bread. Foods 2023, Vol. 12, Page 4113, 12(22), 4113. https://doi.org/10.3390/foods12224113
Afzaal, M., Saeed, F., Shahzadi, U., Hussain, M., Waleed, M., Hussain, S., Mohamed, A. A., Alamri, M. S., Anjum, F. M., & Suleria, H. (2021). Nutritional and therapeutic properties of barley broth (Talbinah): recent updates. International Journal of Food Properties, 24(1), 1631–1641. https://doi.org/10.1080/10942912.2021.1986521
Aguiar, E. V., Santos, F. G., Queiroz, V. A. V., & Capriles, V. D. (2023). A Decade of Evidence of Sorghum Potential in the Development of Novel Food Products: Insights from a Bibliometric Analysis. Foods 2023, Vol. 12, Page 3790, 12(20), 3790. https://doi.org/10.3390/foods12203790
Al-Khusaibi, M. (2019). Arab Traditional Foods: Preparation, Processing and Nutrition. Food Engineering Series, 9–35. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-24620-4_2
Allel, D., Ben-Amar, A., Lamine, M., & Abdelly, C. (2017). Relationships and genetic structure of North African barley (Hordeum vulgare L.) germplasm revealed by morphological and molecular markers: biogeographical considerations. South African Journal of Botany, 112, 1–10. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sajb.2017.05.005
Arzani, A., & Ashraf, M. (2017). Cultivated Ancient Wheats (Triticum spp.): A Potential Source of Health-Beneficial Food Products. Comprehensive Reviews in Food Science and Food Safety, 16(3), 477–488. https://doi.org/10.1111/1541-4337.12262
Ayyad, S., Karimi, P., Ribbe, L., & Becker, M. (2024). Potential Improvements in Crop Production in Egypt and Implications for Future Water and Land Demand. International Journal of Plant Production, 18(3), 313–334. https://doi.org/10.1007/s42106-024-00301-7
Badrasawi, M. M., Shahar, S., Manaf, Z. A., & Haron, H. (2013). Effect of Talbinah food consumption on depressive symptoms among elderly individuals in long term care facilities, randomized clinical trial. Clinical Interventions in Aging, 8, 279–285. https://doi.org/10.2147/CIA.S37586
Bani, C., Cappa, C., Restani, P., Sala, M., Colombo, F., Mercogliano, F., & Di Lorenzo, C. (2024). Physicochemical and nutritional quality of pigmented rice and bran: Influence of milling and cooking. LWT, 208, 116653. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.lwt.2024.116653
Barkaoui, M., Msanda, F., Boubaker, H., El-Boullani, R., El Asri, O., Chokri, A., El-Yaagoubi, M., Koutaya, A., Eloirdi, A., Arifi, K., & Chahboune, M. (2024). Ethnobotany, traditional knowledge, and nutritional value of Argan (Argania spinosa (L.) Skeels) in Western Anti-Atlas of Morocco. Brazilian Journal of Biology, 84. https://doi.org/10.1590/1519-6984.260477
Beldados, A., & Ruiz-Giralt, A. (2023). Burning questions: Experiments on the effects of charring on domestic and wild sorghum. Journal of Archaeological Science: Reports, 51, 104170. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jasrep.2023.104170
Ben Naceur, A., Chaabane, R., El-Faleh, M., Abdelly, C., Ramla, D., Nada, A., Sakr, M., & Ben Naceur, M. (2012). Genetic diversity analysis of North Africa’s barley using SSR markers. Journal of Genetic Engineering and Biotechnology, 10(1), 13–21. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jgeb.2011.12.003
Benkhoud, H., Mrabet, Y., Nasraoui, N., Bellazreg, W., Daly, F., Chaabane, N., & Hosni, K. (2022). Chemical compositions, fatty acid profiles and selected contaminants in commercial potato and corn chips sold in the Tunisian market. Discover Food, 2(1), 1–12. https://doi.org/10.1007/s44187-022-00030-8
Bjornlund, V., Bjornlund, H., & Van Rooyen, A. F. (2020). Why agricultural production in sub-Saharan Africa remains low compared to the rest of the world – a historical perspective. International Journal of Water Resources Development, sup1, 1–34. https://doi.org/10.1080/07900627.2020.1739512
Boudries, N., Belhaneche, N., Nadjemi, B., Deroanne, C., Mathlouthi, M., Roger, B., & Sindic, M. (2009). Physicochemical and functional properties of starches from sorghum cultivated in the Sahara of Algeria. Carbohydrate Polymers, 78(3), 475–480. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.carbpol.2009.05.010
Boukid, F. (2021a). Cereal-based foodstuffs: The backbone of Mediterranean cuisine (2021st ed.). Springer Nature. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-69228-5
Boukid, F. (2021b). Cereal-Derived Foodstuffs from North African-Mediterranean: From Tradition to Innovation. In F. Boukid (Ed.), Cereal-Based Foodstuffs: The Backbone of Mediterranean Cuisine (pp. 117–150). Springer International Publishing. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-69228-5_5
Boukid, F. (2023). Corn (Zea mays L.) arabinoxylan to expand the portfolio of dietary fibers. Food Bioscience, 56, 103181. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fbio.2023.103181
Boukid, F. (2024a). Comprehensive review of barley dietary fibers with Emphasis on arabinoxylans. Bioactive Carbohydrates and Dietary Fibre, 31, 100410. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bcdf.2024.100410
Boukid, F. (2024b). Gastronomic heritage of legume foods in Southern Mediterranean cuisine. The North African Journal of Food and Nutrition Research, 8(18). https://doi.org/10.51745/najfnr.8.18.19-34
Boukid, F., & Mefleh, M. (2024). Potential benefits of pigmented barley in human health. Pigmented Grains: Nutritional Properties, Bioactive Potential, and Food Application, 119–133. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-443-15906-0.00005-X
Boukid, F., Vittadini, E., Lusuardi, F., Ganino, T., Carini, E., Morreale, F., & Pellegrini, N. (2019). Does cell wall integrity in legumes flours modulate physiochemical quality and in vitro starch hydrolysis of gluten-free bread? Journal of Functional Foods, 59, 110–118. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jff.2019.05.034
Britwum, K., & Demont, M. (2022). Food security and the cultural heritage missing link. Global Food Security, 35. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gfs.2022.100660
Broucke, K., Van De Walle, S., Mefleh, M., Duquenne, B., Van Royen, G., & Boukid, F. (2024). Optimizing protein quality: synergies and comparisons of single and combined alternative proteins from diverse sources. European Food Research and Technology 2024, 1–13. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00217-024-04610-z
Cappelli, A., Oliva, N., & Cini, E. (2020). Stone milling versus roller milling: A systematic review of the effects on wheat flour quality, dough rheology, and bread characteristics. Trends in Food Science and Technology, 97, 147–155. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tifs.2020.01.008
Casari, S., Di Paola, M., Banci, E., Diallo, S., Scarallo, L., Renzo, S., Gori, A., Renzi, S., Paci, M., de Mast, Q., Pecht, T., Derra, K., Kaboré, B., Tinto, H., Cavalieri, D., & Lionetti, P. (2022). Changing Dietary Habits: The Impact of Urbanization and Rising Socio-Economic Status in Families from Burkina Faso in Sub-Saharan Africa. Nutrients, 14(9), 1782. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu14091782
Chemache, L., Kehal, F., & Namoune, H. (2021). Wet agglomeration of barley flour-wheat semolina blends into couscous: Effects on rheological, culinary and sensory properties. International Journal of Gastronomy and Food Science, 26, 100412. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijgfs.2021.100412
Cherniwchan, J., & Moreno-Cruz, J. (2019). Maize and precolonial Africa. Journal of Development Economics, 136, 137–150. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jdeveco.2018.10.008
Conte, P., Paciulli, M., Mefleh, M., & Boukid, F. (2024). Corn and barley protein concentrates: effects of fractionation and micronization on the chemical, functional, and thermal properties. European Food Research and Technology, 1–11. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00217-024-04544-6
Curti, M. I., Belorio, M., Palavecino, P. M., Camiña, J. M., Ribotta, P. D., & Gómez, M. (2022). Effect of sorghum flour properties on gluten-free sponge cake. Journal of Food Science and Technology, 59(4), 1407–1418. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13197-021-05150-0
D’Almeida, C. T. dos S., Mameri, H., Menezes, N. dos S., de Carvalho, C. W. P., Queiroz, V. A. V., Cameron, L. C., Morel, M. H., Takeiti, C. Y., & Ferreira, M. S. L. (2021). Effect of extrusion and turmeric addition on phenolic compounds and kafirin properties in tannin and tannin-free sorghum. Food Research International, 149. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodres.2021.110663
D’Almeida, C. T. D. S, Bonicel, J., de Milliano, W., Beta, T., Simões Larraz Ferreira, M., & Mameri, H. (2025). Enhancing the nutritional value of sorghum grains bred for northern Europe through processing: A perspective on phenolic bioaccessibility and protein digestibility. Food Chemistry, 470(142627), 142627. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodchem.2024.142627
Dawson, I. K., Russell, J., Powell, W., Steffenson, B., Thomas, W. T. B., & Waugh, R. (2015). Barley: A translational model for adaptation to climate change. New Phytologist, 206(3), 913–931. https://doi.org/10.1111/nph.13266
Deschane, A. (2024). Tradi-trendy Algerian cuisine. 80 recettes inspirées de la cuisine kabyle et des autres régions d’Algérie Hachette Pratique.
Dovi, K. A. P., Solah, V. A., Taylor, J. R. N., & Johnson, S. K. (2024). Dough-making performance of composite whole-grain sorghum and whole-grain wheat flours as assessed by a micro-doughLAB assay. Cereal Chemistry, 101(2), 334–343. https://doi.org/10.1002/cche.10761
El-Arab, A. E., Ali, M., & Hussein, L. (2004). Vitamin B1 profile of the Egyptian core foods and adequacy of intake. Journal of Food Composition and Analysis, 17(1), 81–97. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0889-1575(03)00103-0
El Yamani, M., Ijjouk, R., Kahime, K., & Rharrabti, Y. (2024). Ethnopharmacological Knowledge and Antioxidant Propensities of Argania spinosa L. from Morocco. Advances in Pharmacological and Pharmaceutical Sciences, 2024(1), 6795451. https://doi.org/10.1155/2024/6795451
Elsadek, E. A., Zhang, K., Hamoud, Y. A., Mousa, A., Awad, A., Abdallah, M., Shaghaleh, H., Hamad, A. A. A., Jamil, M. T., & Elbeltagi, A. (2024). Impacts of climate change on rice yields in the Nile River Delta of Egypt: A large-scale projection analysis based on CMIP6. Agricultural Water Management, 292, 108673. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.agwat.2024.108673
Farag, M. A., Xiao, J., & Abdallah, H. M. (2022). Nutritional value of barley cereal and better opportunities for its processing as a value-added food: a comprehensive review. Critical Reviews in Food Science and Nutrition, 62(4), 1092–1104. https://doi.org/10.1080/10408398.2020.1835817
Fišteš, A. (2021). The Evolution of Milling Process. In Cereal-Based Foodstuffs: The Backbone of Mediterranean Cuisine (pp. 19–45). Springer International Publishing. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-69228-5_2
Fukagawa, N. K., & Ziska, L. H. (2019). Rice: importance for global nutrition. Journal of Nutritional Science and Vitaminology, 65, S2–S3. https://doi.org/10.3177/jnsv.65.S2
Fuller, D. Q., & Stevens, C. J. (2018). Sorghum domestication and diversification: A current archaeobotanical perspective. Plants and People in the African Past: Progress in African Archaeobotany, 427–452. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-89839-1_19
Gagaoua, M., & Boudechicha, H.-R. (2018). Ethnic meat products of the North African and Mediterranean countries: An overview. Journal of Ethnic Foods, 5(2), 83–98. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jef.2018.02.004
Galiba, M., Waniska, R. D., Rooney, L. W., & Miller, F. R. (1988). Couscous quality of sorghum with different kernel characteristics. Journal of Cereal Science, 7(2), 183–193. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0733-5210(88)80019-5
Gallo, T. C. B., Beaumal, V., Houinsou-Houssou, B., Viau, M., Ribourg-Birault, L., Sotin, H., Bonicel, J., Boire, A., Queiroz, V. A. V., Mameri, H., Guyot, S., Riaublanc, A., Nicoletti, V. R., & Berton-Carabin, C. (2024). Sorghum protein ingredients: Production, compositional variability and enhancement of aqueous dispersibility through homogenization. Future Foods, 9, 100323. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fufo.2024.100323
Grote, U., Fasse, A., Nguyen, T. T., & Erenstein, O. (2021). Food Security and the Dynamics of Wheat and Maize Value Chains in Africa and Asia. Frontiers in Sustainable Food Systems, 0, 317. https://doi.org/10.3389/fsufs.2020.617009
Guarneiri, L. L., Kirkpatrick, C. F., & Maki, K. C. (2024). Viscous fiber from oats and barley: keep them in your cholesterol-lowering portfolio. Annals of Translational Medicine, 12(1), 18–18. https://doi.org/10.21037/atm-23-1816
Guetteche, H., Jarrar, A. A., Khiyel, I., Djekkoun, N., Rouabah, L., Rouabah, A., Benbelkacem, A., & Nick, P. (2022). The popular Algerian barley landraces Saïda and Tichedrett are autochthonous – evidence from RAPD, SSR and agrophenological markers. Plant Genetic Resources, 20(6), 394–405. https://doi.org/10.1017/S1479262123000291
Halawa, A. (2023). Influence of the traditional food culture of Ancient Egypt on the transition of cuisine and food culture of contemporary Egypt. Journal of Ethnic Foods, 10(1), 1–13. https://doi.org/10.1186/s42779-023-00177-4
Houde, M., Khodaei, N., Benkerroum, N., & Karboune, S. (2018). Barley protein concentrates: Extraction, structural and functional properties. Food Chemistry, 254, 367–376. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodchem.2018.01.156
Hugo, L. F., Rooney, L. W., & Taylor, J. R. N. (2003). Fermented sorghum as a functional ingredient in composite breads. Cereal Chemistry, 80(5), 495–499. https://doi.org/10.1094/CCHEM.2003.80.5.495
Irondi, E. A., Imam, Y. T., Ajani, E. O., & Alamu, E. O. (2023). Natural and modified food hydrocolloids as gluten replacement in baked foods: Functional benefits. Grain and Oil Science and Technology, 6(4), 163–171. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gaost.2023.10.001
Jafari, M., Koocheki, A., & Milani, E. (2018). Physicochemical and sensory properties of extruded sorghum–wheat composite bread. Journal of Food Measurement and Characterization, 12(1), 370–377. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11694-017-9649-4
Karous, O., Jilani, I. B. H., & Ghrabi-Gammar, Z. (2021). Ethnobotanical study on plant used by semi-nomad descendants’ community in ouled dabbeb—southern Tunisia. Plants, 10(4), 642. https://doi.org/10.3390/plants10040642
Kertolli, E., Prosperi, P., Harbouze, R., Moussadek, R., Echchgadda, G., & Belhouchette, H. (2024). The water–energy–food–ecosystem nexus in North Africa dryland farming: a multi-criteria analysis of climate-resilient innovations in Morocco. Agricultural and Food Economics 2024 12:1, 12(1), 1–31. https://doi.org/10.1186/s40100-024-00327-5
Khodeir, M., El-Morshedy, R., & Abdelsalam, H. M. (2018). An Exploratory Simulation Model for Rice Consumption and Production in Egypt. SSRN Electronic Journal. https://doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.3389806
Kouki, M., Kallel, Z., & Turki, Z. (1989). La Cuisine Tunisienne d’Ommok Sannafa (M. Kouki & H. Jerbi (eds.)).
Kovatcheva-Datchary, P., Nilsson, A., Akrami, R., Lee, Y. S., De Vadder, F., Arora, T., Hallen, A., Martens, E., Björck, I., & Bäckhed, F. (2015). Dietary fiber-induced improvement in glucose metabolism is associated with increased abundance of Prevotella. Cell Metabolism, 22(6), 971–982. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cmet.2015.10.001
Lahouar, L., Ghrairi, F., El Arem, A., Medimagh, S., El Felah, M., Salem, H. Ben, & Achour, L. (2017). Biochemical composition and nutritional evaluation of barley rihane (Hordeum vulgare L.). African Journal of Traditional, Complementary and Alternative Medicines, 14(1), 310–317. https://doi.org/10.21010/ajtcam.v14i1.33
Mahgoub, S. A., & Badawy, S. A. (2015). Study of Agronomical and Technological Quality Characteristics of Some Special Egyptian Rice Varieties. Egypt. J. Agron, 37(1), 121–136. https://doi.org/10.21608/agro.2015.68
McCann, J. (2001). Maize and Grace: History, Corn, and Africa’s New Landscapes, 1500–1999. Comparative Studies in Society and History, 43(2), 246–272. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0010417501003486
Meera, M. S., Bhashyam, M. K., & Ali, S. Z. (2011). Effect of heat treatment of sorghum grains on storage stability of flour. LWT - Food Science and Technology, 44(10), 2199–2204. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.lwt.2011.05.020
Melih Secer, O., Guneser, B. A., & Guneser, O. (2020). Prediction of shelf-life and kinetics of quality changes in canned stuffed grape leaves. LWT, 132, 109850. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.lwt.2020.109850
Messia, M. C., Oriente, M., Angelicola, M., De Arcangelis, E., & Marconi, E. (2019). Development of functional couscous enriched in barley β-glucans. Journal of Cereal Science, 85, 137–142. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jcs.2018.12.007
Mohamed, A. H., Omar, A. A., Attya, A. M., Elashtokhy, M. M. A., Zayed, E. M., & Rizk, R. M. (2021). Morphological and molecular characterization of some egyptian six-rowed barley (Hordeum vulgare l.). Plants, 10(11), 2527. https://doi.org/10.3390/plants10112527
Mohamed, M. E., Lehto, X. Y., & Behnke, C. (2024). Visitors’ and non-visitors’ destination food images: How do they vary in Egypt? Tourism Management Perspectives, 51, 101241. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tmp.2024.101241
Morcos, S. R., Hegazi, S. M., & El‐Damhougy, S. T. (1973). Fermented foods of common use in Egypt. II. The chemical composition of bouza and its ingredients. Journal of the Science of Food and Agriculture, 24(10), 1157–1161. https://doi.org/10.1002/jsfa.2740241003
Morreale, F., Angelino, D., & Pellegrini, N. (2018). Designing a Score-Based Method for the Evaluation of the Nutritional Quality of the Gluten-Free Bakery Products and their Gluten-Containing Counterparts. Plant Foods for Human Nutrition, 73(2), 154–159. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11130-018-0662-5
Moujabbir, S., Aboukhalaf, A., Kalili, A., Naciri, K., Sahel, K., Rocha, J. M., & Belahsen, R. (2023). Sourdoughs used in the preparation of traditional breads in the province of Figuig in eastern Morocco. International Journal of Food Studies, 12(1), 71–83. https://doi.org/10.7455/ijfs/12.1.2023.a5
Moukal, A. (2004). L’arganier, Argania spinosa L. (skeels), usage thérapeutique, cosmétique et alimentaire*. Phytotherapie 2004 2:5, 2(5), 135–141. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10298-004-0041-2
Noort, M. W. J., Renzetti, S., Linderhof, V., du Rand, G. E., Marx-Pienaar, N. J. M. M., de Kock, H. L., Magano, N., & Taylor, J. R. N. (2022). Towards Sustainable Shifts to Healthy Diets and Food Security in Sub-Saharan Africa with Climate-Resilient Crops in Bread-Type Products: A Food System Analysis. Foods, 11(2). https://doi.org/10.3390/foods11020135
Ogunsakin, O., Banwo, K., Ogunremi, O., & Sanni, A. (2015). Microbiological and physicochemical properties of sourdough bread from sorghum flour. International Food Research Journal.
Palmer, S. A., Moore, J. D., Clapham, A. J., Rose, P., & Allaby, R. G. (2009). Archaeogenetic Evidence of Ancient Nubian Barley Evolution from Six to Two-Row Indicates Local Adaptation. PLOS ONE, 4(7), e6301. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0006301
Pasqualone, A. (2018). Traditional flat breads spread from the Fertile Crescent: Production process and history of baking systems. Journal of Ethnic Foods, 5(1), 10–19. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jef.2018.02.002
Perraulta Lavanya, J., Gowthamraj, G., & Sangeetha, N. (2021). Effect of heat moisture treatment on the physicochemical, functional, and antioxidant characteristics of white sorghum (Sorghum bicolor (L.) grains and flour. Journal of Food Processing and Preservation, 45(12), e16017. https://doi.org/10.1111/jfpp.16017
Perri, G., Minisci, A., Montemurro, M., Pontonio, E., Verni, M., & Rizzello, C. G. (2023). Exploitation of sprouted barley grains and flour through sourdough fermentation. LWT, 187, 115326. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.lwt.2023.115326
Piechota, U., Czembor, P. C., & Czembor, J. H. (2020). Evaluating barley landraces collected in North Africa and the Middle East for powdery mildew infection at seedling and adult plant stages. Cereal Research Communications, 48(2), 179–185. https://doi.org/10.1007/s42976-020-00021-4
Raj, R., Shams, R., Pandey, V. K., Dash, K. K., Singh, P., & Bashir, O. (2023). Barley phytochemicals and health promoting benefits: A comprehensive review. Journal of Agriculture and Food Research, 14. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jafr.2023.100677
Ramadan, A. A. S. (1986). Some characteristics of Egyptian balady bread as affected by partial substitution of maize flour. Food / Nahrung, 30(7), 663–666. https://doi.org/10.1002/food.19860300703
Reardon, T., Tschirley, D., Liverpool-Tasie, L. S. O., Awokuse, T., Fanzo, J., Minten, B., Vos, R., Dolislager, M., Sauer, C., Dhar, R., Vargas, C., Lartey, A., Raza, A., & Popkin, B. M. (2021). The processed food revolution in African food systems and the double burden of malnutrition. Global Food Security, 28. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gfs.2020.100466
Reed, K., & Leleković, T. (2019). First evidence of rice (Oryza cf. sativa L.) and black pepper (Piper nigrum) in Roman Mursa. Croatia Archaeol Anthropol Sci, 11(1), 271–278. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12520-017-0545-y
Saddoud Debbabi, O., Ben Slimane, M., Ben Hadj Alouane, R. B., Montemurro, C., Snoussi, H., & Miazzi, M. M. (2024). Traditional Foods as a Way to Preserve the Genetic Diversity of the Grapevine (Vitis vinifera) in Tunisia. Horticulturae 2024, Vol. 10, Page 423, 10(4), 423. https://doi.org/10.3390/horticulturae10040423
Salih, G., Jilal, A., Garcia, M. S., & Visioni, A. (2022). Food Barley in North Africa: state of art and opportunities for development. African and Mediterranean Agricultural Journal - Al Awamia, (137), 41–64. https://doi.org/10.34874/imist.prsm/afrimed-i137.36761
Schober, T. J., Bean, S. R., & Boyle, D. L. (2007). Gluten-free sorghum bread improved by sourdough fermentation: Biochemical, rheological, and microstructural background. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry, 55(13), 5137–5146. https://doi.org/10.1021/jf0704155
Shaikh, M., Sunooj, K. V., Rahman, M. H., Navaf, M., & Ali, T. M. (2024). Lentils: A Recent Review on Global Trade and Popular Regional Cuisines. Legume Science, 6(3), e252. https://doi.org/10.1002/leg3.252
Shao, Y., Mu, B., Xu, L., & Yang, Y. (2024). A green and sustainable technology for the development of artificial protein fibers from sorghum distillers grains for industrialization. Chemical Engineering Journal, 502, 157853. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cej.2024.157853
Shopov, A. (2019). Cities of rice: risiculture and environmental change in the Early Modern Ottoman Balkans. Levant, 51(2), 169–183. https://doi.org/10.1080/00758914.2020.1807127
Singh, A., Sharma, S., Dar, B. N., & Boukid, F. (2024). Pigmented Grains: Nutritional Properties, Bioactive Potential, and Food Application, 1–387. https://doi.org/10.1016/C2022-0-01982-6
Snodgrass, S. J., & Hufford, M. B. (2018). Domestication Genomics: Untangling the Complex History of African Rice. Current Biology, 28(14), R786–R788. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cub.2018.05.072
Soto-Gómez, D., & Pérez-Rodríguez, P. (2022). Sustainable agriculture through perennial grains: Wheat, rice, maize, and other species. A review. Agriculture, Ecosystems & Environment, 325, 107747. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.agee.2021.107747
Spengler, R. N., Stark, S., Zhou, X., Fuks, D., Tang, L., Mir-Makhamad, B., Bjørn, R., Jiang, H., Olivieri, L. M., Begmatov, A., & Boivin, N. (2021). A Journey to the West: The Ancient Dispersal of Rice Out of East Asia. Rice, 14(1), 1–18. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12284-021-00518-4
Storck, C. R., Fortes, C. R., Halal, S. L. M. El, Ribeiro, J. D., Montagner, G. E., Fonseca, L. M., Zavareze, E. da R., & Dias, A. R. G. (2021). Different reaction times for phosphorylation of sorghum flour (Sorghum bicolor): Physicochemical evaluation and application in the formulation of gluten-free cakes. Food Bioscience, 44, 101441. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fbio.2021.101441
Swesi, R., El-Anis, I., & Islam, M. M. (2020). Food insecurity coping strategies in conflict-affected Libya. Development in Practice, 30(3), 394–408. https://doi.org/10.1080/09614524.2019.1694644
Tadesse, S. A., Beri, G. B., & Abera, S. (2019). Chemical and sensory quality of sorghum-based extruded product supplemented with defatted soy meal flour. Cogent Food & Agriculture, 5(1). https://doi.org/10.1080/23311932.2019.1653617
Tagliasco, M., Font, G., Renzetti, S., Capuano, E., & Pellegrini, N. (2024). Role of particle size in modulating starch digestibility and textural properties in a rye bread model system. Food Research International, 190, 114565. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodres.2024.114565
Tiozon, R. J. N., Bonto, A. P., & Sreenivasulu, N. (2021). Enhancing the functional properties of rice starch through biopolymer blending for industrial applications: A review. International Journal of Biological Macromolecules, 192, 100–117. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijbiomac.2021.09.194
USDA. (2024). IPAD. https://ipad.fas.usda.gov/countrysummary
Wasylikowa, K., & Dahlberg, J. (1999). Sorghum in the Economy of the Early Neolithic Nomadic Tribes at Nabta Playa, Southern Egypt. The Exploitation of Plant Resources in Ancient Africa, 11–31. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4757-6730-8_2
Wasylikowa, K., Mitka, J., Wendorf, F., & Schild, R. (1997). Exploitation of wild plants by the early Neolithic hunter-gatherers of the Western Desert, Egypt: Nabta Playa as a case-study. Antiquity, 71(274), 932–941. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0003598X00085835
Westengen, O. T., Okongo, M. A., Onek, L., Berg, T., Upadhyaya, H., Birkeland, S., Khalsa, S. D. K., Ring, K. H., Stenseth, N. C., & Brysting, A. K. (2014). Ethnolinguistic structuring of sorghum genetic diversity in Africa and the role of local seed systems. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 111(39), 14100–14105. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1401646111
Zhang, Y., Xu, J., Park, J., & Kim, H.-S. (2023). Rice-Based Gluten-Free Foods and Technologies: A Review. Foods 2023, Vol. 12, Page 4110, 12(22), 4110. https://doi.org/10.3390/foods12224110
Zhou, W., Hui, Y. H., De Leyn, I., Pagani, M. A., Rosell, C. M., Selman, J. D., & Therdthai, N. (2014). Bakery Products Science and Technology: Second Edition, 9781119967156, 1–761. https://doi.org/10.1002/9781118792001
Abdelbost, L., Morel, M. H., Nascimento, T. P. do, Cameron, L. C., Bonicel, J., Larraz, M. F. S., & Mameri, H. (2023). Sorghum grain germination as a route to improve kafirin digestibility: Biochemical and label free proteomics insights. Food Chemistry, 424, 136407.https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodchem.2023.136407
Abdeldaiem, A. M., Ali, A. H., Mousa, A. H., Elkot, W. F., & Simal-Gandara, J. (2023). Ice cream supplemented with roasted and grilled corn powders: Physical properties, rheology, antioxidant activity, color, sensory evaluation, and production cost. International Journal of Gastronomy and Food Science, 32, 100692. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijgfs.2023.100692
Aboubacar, A., & Hamaker, B. R. (1999). Physicochemical properties of flours that relate to sorghum couscous quality. Cereal Chemistry, 76(2), 308–313. https://doi.org/10.1094/CCHEM.1999.76.2.308
Aboubacar, A., Yazici, N., & Hamaker, B. R. (2006). Extent of decortication and quality of flour, couscous and porridge made from different sorghum cultivars. International Journal of Food Science and Technology, 41(6), 698–703. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2621.2005.01138.x
Achli, S., Epule, T. E., Dhiba, D., Chehbouni, A., & Er-Raki, S. (2022). Vulnerability of Barley, Maize, and Wheat Yields to Variations in Growing Season Precipitation in Morocco. Applied Sciences 2022, Vol. 12, Page 3407, 12(7), 3407. https://doi.org/10.3390/app12073407
Adebo, O. A. (2020). African sorghum-based fermented foods: Past, current and future prospects. Nutrients, 12(4). https://doi.org/10.3390/nu12041111
Adebowale, O. J., Taylor, J. R. N., & de Kock, H. L. (2020). Stabilization of wholegrain sorghum flour and consequent potential improvement of food product sensory quality by microwave treatment of the kernels. LWT, 132. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.lwt.2020.109827
Adzqia, F., Suwonsichon, S., & Thongngam, M. (2023). Effects of White Sorghum Flour Levels on Physicochemical and Sensory Characteristics of Gluten-Free Bread. Foods 2023, Vol. 12, Page 4113, 12(22), 4113. https://doi.org/10.3390/foods12224113
Afzaal, M., Saeed, F., Shahzadi, U., Hussain, M., Waleed, M., Hussain, S., Mohamed, A. A., Alamri, M. S., Anjum, F. M., & Suleria, H. (2021). Nutritional and therapeutic properties of barley broth (Talbinah): recent updates. International Journal of Food Properties, 24(1), 1631–1641. https://doi.org/10.1080/10942912.2021.1986521
Aguiar, E. V., Santos, F. G., Queiroz, V. A. V., & Capriles, V. D. (2023). A Decade of Evidence of Sorghum Potential in the Development of Novel Food Products: Insights from a Bibliometric Analysis. Foods 2023, Vol. 12, Page 3790, 12(20), 3790. https://doi.org/10.3390/foods12203790
Al-Khusaibi, M. (2019). Arab Traditional Foods: Preparation, Processing and Nutrition. Food Engineering Series, 9–35. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-24620-4_2
Allel, D., Ben-Amar, A., Lamine, M., & Abdelly, C. (2017). Relationships and genetic structure of North African barley (Hordeum vulgare L.) germplasm revealed by morphological and molecular markers: biogeographical considerations. South African Journal of Botany, 112, 1–10. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sajb.2017.05.005
Arzani, A., & Ashraf, M. (2017). Cultivated Ancient Wheats (Triticum spp.): A Potential Source of Health-Beneficial Food Products. Comprehensive Reviews in Food Science and Food Safety, 16(3), 477–488. https://doi.org/10.1111/1541-4337.12262
Ayyad, S., Karimi, P., Ribbe, L., & Becker, M. (2024). Potential Improvements in Crop Production in Egypt and Implications for Future Water and Land Demand. International Journal of Plant Production, 18(3), 313–334. https://doi.org/10.1007/s42106-024-00301-7
Badrasawi, M. M., Shahar, S., Manaf, Z. A., & Haron, H. (2013). Effect of Talbinah food consumption on depressive symptoms among elderly individuals in long term care facilities, randomized clinical trial. Clinical Interventions in Aging, 8, 279–285. https://doi.org/10.2147/CIA.S37586
Bani, C., Cappa, C., Restani, P., Sala, M., Colombo, F., Mercogliano, F., & Di Lorenzo, C. (2024). Physicochemical and nutritional quality of pigmented rice and bran: Influence of milling and cooking. LWT, 208, 116653. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.lwt.2024.116653
Barkaoui, M., Msanda, F., Boubaker, H., El-Boullani, R., El Asri, O., Chokri, A., El-Yaagoubi, M., Koutaya, A., Eloirdi, A., Arifi, K., & Chahboune, M. (2024). Ethnobotany, traditional knowledge, and nutritional value of Argan (Argania spinosa (L.) Skeels) in Western Anti-Atlas of Morocco. Brazilian Journal of Biology, 84. https://doi.org/10.1590/1519-6984.260477
Beldados, A., & Ruiz-Giralt, A. (2023). Burning questions: Experiments on the effects of charring on domestic and wild sorghum. Journal of Archaeological Science: Reports, 51, 104170. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jasrep.2023.104170
Ben Naceur, A., Chaabane, R., El-Faleh, M., Abdelly, C., Ramla, D., Nada, A., Sakr, M., & Ben Naceur, M. (2012). Genetic diversity analysis of North Africa’s barley using SSR markers. Journal of Genetic Engineering and Biotechnology, 10(1), 13–21. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jgeb.2011.12.003
Benkhoud, H., Mrabet, Y., Nasraoui, N., Bellazreg, W., Daly, F., Chaabane, N., & Hosni, K. (2022). Chemical compositions, fatty acid profiles and selected contaminants in commercial potato and corn chips sold in the Tunisian market. Discover Food, 2(1), 1–12. https://doi.org/10.1007/s44187-022-00030-8
Bjornlund, V., Bjornlund, H., & Van Rooyen, A. F. (2020). Why agricultural production in sub-Saharan Africa remains low compared to the rest of the world – a historical perspective. International Journal of Water Resources Development, sup1, 1–34. https://doi.org/10.1080/07900627.2020.1739512
Boudries, N., Belhaneche, N., Nadjemi, B., Deroanne, C., Mathlouthi, M., Roger, B., & Sindic, M. (2009). Physicochemical and functional properties of starches from sorghum cultivated in the Sahara of Algeria. Carbohydrate Polymers, 78(3), 475–480. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.carbpol.2009.05.010
Boukid, F. (2021a). Cereal-based foodstuffs: The backbone of Mediterranean cuisine (2021st ed.). Springer Nature. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-69228-5
Boukid, F. (2021b). Cereal-Derived Foodstuffs from North African-Mediterranean: From Tradition to Innovation. In F. Boukid (Ed.), Cereal-Based Foodstuffs: The Backbone of Mediterranean Cuisine (pp. 117–150). Springer International Publishing. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-69228-5_5
Boukid, F. (2023). Corn (Zea mays L.) arabinoxylan to expand the portfolio of dietary fibers. Food Bioscience, 56, 103181. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fbio.2023.103181
Boukid, F. (2024a). Comprehensive review of barley dietary fibers with Emphasis on arabinoxylans. Bioactive Carbohydrates and Dietary Fibre, 31, 100410. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bcdf.2024.100410
Boukid, F. (2024b). Gastronomic heritage of legume foods in Southern Mediterranean cuisine. The North African Journal of Food and Nutrition Research, 8(18). https://doi.org/10.51745/najfnr.8.18.19-34
Boukid, F., & Mefleh, M. (2024). Potential benefits of pigmented barley in human health. Pigmented Grains: Nutritional Properties, Bioactive Potential, and Food Application, 119–133. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-443-15906-0.00005-X
Boukid, F., Vittadini, E., Lusuardi, F., Ganino, T., Carini, E., Morreale, F., & Pellegrini, N. (2019). Does cell wall integrity in legumes flours modulate physiochemical quality and in vitro starch hydrolysis of gluten-free bread? Journal of Functional Foods, 59, 110–118. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jff.2019.05.034
Britwum, K., & Demont, M. (2022). Food security and the cultural heritage missing link. Global Food Security, 35. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gfs.2022.100660
Broucke, K., Van De Walle, S., Mefleh, M., Duquenne, B., Van Royen, G., & Boukid, F. (2024). Optimizing protein quality: synergies and comparisons of single and combined alternative proteins from diverse sources. European Food Research and Technology 2024, 1–13. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00217-024-04610-z
Cappelli, A., Oliva, N., & Cini, E. (2020). Stone milling versus roller milling: A systematic review of the effects on wheat flour quality, dough rheology, and bread characteristics. Trends in Food Science and Technology, 97, 147–155. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tifs.2020.01.008
Casari, S., Di Paola, M., Banci, E., Diallo, S., Scarallo, L., Renzo, S., Gori, A., Renzi, S., Paci, M., de Mast, Q., Pecht, T., Derra, K., Kaboré, B., Tinto, H., Cavalieri, D., & Lionetti, P. (2022). Changing Dietary Habits: The Impact of Urbanization and Rising Socio-Economic Status in Families from Burkina Faso in Sub-Saharan Africa. Nutrients, 14(9), 1782. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu14091782
Chemache, L., Kehal, F., & Namoune, H. (2021). Wet agglomeration of barley flour-wheat semolina blends into couscous: Effects on rheological, culinary and sensory properties. International Journal of Gastronomy and Food Science, 26, 100412. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijgfs.2021.100412
Cherniwchan, J., & Moreno-Cruz, J. (2019). Maize and precolonial Africa. Journal of Development Economics, 136, 137–150. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jdeveco.2018.10.008
Conte, P., Paciulli, M., Mefleh, M., & Boukid, F. (2024). Corn and barley protein concentrates: effects of fractionation and micronization on the chemical, functional, and thermal properties. European Food Research and Technology, 1–11. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00217-024-04544-6
Curti, M. I., Belorio, M., Palavecino, P. M., Camiña, J. M., Ribotta, P. D., & Gómez, M. (2022). Effect of sorghum flour properties on gluten-free sponge cake. Journal of Food Science and Technology, 59(4), 1407–1418. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13197-021-05150-0
D’Almeida, C. T. dos S., Mameri, H., Menezes, N. dos S., de Carvalho, C. W. P., Queiroz, V. A. V., Cameron, L. C., Morel, M. H., Takeiti, C. Y., & Ferreira, M. S. L. (2021). Effect of extrusion and turmeric addition on phenolic compounds and kafirin properties in tannin and tannin-free sorghum. Food Research International, 149. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodres.2021.110663
D’Almeida, C. T. D. S, Bonicel, J., de Milliano, W., Beta, T., Simões Larraz Ferreira, M., & Mameri, H. (2025). Enhancing the nutritional value of sorghum grains bred for northern Europe through processing: A perspective on phenolic bioaccessibility and protein digestibility. Food Chemistry, 470(142627), 142627. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodchem.2024.142627
Dawson, I. K., Russell, J., Powell, W., Steffenson, B., Thomas, W. T. B., & Waugh, R. (2015). Barley: A translational model for adaptation to climate change. New Phytologist, 206(3), 913–931. https://doi.org/10.1111/nph.13266
Deschane, A. (2024). Tradi-trendy Algerian cuisine. 80 recettes inspirées de la cuisine kabyle et des autres régions d’Algérie Hachette Pratique.
Dovi, K. A. P., Solah, V. A., Taylor, J. R. N., & Johnson, S. K. (2024). Dough-making performance of composite whole-grain sorghum and whole-grain wheat flours as assessed by a micro-doughLAB assay. Cereal Chemistry, 101(2), 334–343. https://doi.org/10.1002/cche.10761
El-Arab, A. E., Ali, M., & Hussein, L. (2004). Vitamin B1 profile of the Egyptian core foods and adequacy of intake. Journal of Food Composition and Analysis, 17(1), 81–97. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0889-1575(03)00103-0
El Yamani, M., Ijjouk, R., Kahime, K., & Rharrabti, Y. (2024). Ethnopharmacological Knowledge and Antioxidant Propensities of Argania spinosa L. from Morocco. Advances in Pharmacological and Pharmaceutical Sciences, 2024(1), 6795451. https://doi.org/10.1155/2024/6795451
Elsadek, E. A., Zhang, K., Hamoud, Y. A., Mousa, A., Awad, A., Abdallah, M., Shaghaleh, H., Hamad, A. A. A., Jamil, M. T., & Elbeltagi, A. (2024). Impacts of climate change on rice yields in the Nile River Delta of Egypt: A large-scale projection analysis based on CMIP6. Agricultural Water Management, 292, 108673. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.agwat.2024.108673
Farag, M. A., Xiao, J., & Abdallah, H. M. (2022). Nutritional value of barley cereal and better opportunities for its processing as a value-added food: a comprehensive review. Critical Reviews in Food Science and Nutrition, 62(4), 1092–1104. https://doi.org/10.1080/10408398.2020.1835817
Fišteš, A. (2021). The Evolution of Milling Process. In Cereal-Based Foodstuffs: The Backbone of Mediterranean Cuisine (pp. 19–45). Springer International Publishing. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-69228-5_2
Fukagawa, N. K., & Ziska, L. H. (2019). Rice: importance for global nutrition. Journal of Nutritional Science and Vitaminology, 65, S2–S3. https://doi.org/10.3177/jnsv.65.S2
Fuller, D. Q., & Stevens, C. J. (2018). Sorghum domestication and diversification: A current archaeobotanical perspective. Plants and People in the African Past: Progress in African Archaeobotany, 427–452. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-89839-1_19
Gagaoua, M., & Boudechicha, H.-R. (2018). Ethnic meat products of the North African and Mediterranean countries: An overview. Journal of Ethnic Foods, 5(2), 83–98. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jef.2018.02.004
Galiba, M., Waniska, R. D., Rooney, L. W., & Miller, F. R. (1988). Couscous quality of sorghum with different kernel characteristics. Journal of Cereal Science, 7(2), 183–193. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0733-5210(88)80019-5
Gallo, T. C. B., Beaumal, V., Houinsou-Houssou, B., Viau, M., Ribourg-Birault, L., Sotin, H., Bonicel, J., Boire, A., Queiroz, V. A. V., Mameri, H., Guyot, S., Riaublanc, A., Nicoletti, V. R., & Berton-Carabin, C. (2024). Sorghum protein ingredients: Production, compositional variability and enhancement of aqueous dispersibility through homogenization. Future Foods, 9, 100323. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fufo.2024.100323
Grote, U., Fasse, A., Nguyen, T. T., & Erenstein, O. (2021). Food Security and the Dynamics of Wheat and Maize Value Chains in Africa and Asia. Frontiers in Sustainable Food Systems, 0, 317. https://doi.org/10.3389/fsufs.2020.617009
Guarneiri, L. L., Kirkpatrick, C. F., & Maki, K. C. (2024). Viscous fiber from oats and barley: keep them in your cholesterol-lowering portfolio. Annals of Translational Medicine, 12(1), 18–18. https://doi.org/10.21037/atm-23-1816
Guetteche, H., Jarrar, A. A., Khiyel, I., Djekkoun, N., Rouabah, L., Rouabah, A., Benbelkacem, A., & Nick, P. (2022). The popular Algerian barley landraces Saïda and Tichedrett are autochthonous – evidence from RAPD, SSR and agrophenological markers. Plant Genetic Resources, 20(6), 394–405. https://doi.org/10.1017/S1479262123000291
Halawa, A. (2023). Influence of the traditional food culture of Ancient Egypt on the transition of cuisine and food culture of contemporary Egypt. Journal of Ethnic Foods, 10(1), 1–13. https://doi.org/10.1186/s42779-023-00177-4
Houde, M., Khodaei, N., Benkerroum, N., & Karboune, S. (2018). Barley protein concentrates: Extraction, structural and functional properties. Food Chemistry, 254, 367–376. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodchem.2018.01.156
Hugo, L. F., Rooney, L. W., & Taylor, J. R. N. (2003). Fermented sorghum as a functional ingredient in composite breads. Cereal Chemistry, 80(5), 495–499. https://doi.org/10.1094/CCHEM.2003.80.5.495
Irondi, E. A., Imam, Y. T., Ajani, E. O., & Alamu, E. O. (2023). Natural and modified food hydrocolloids as gluten replacement in baked foods: Functional benefits. Grain and Oil Science and Technology, 6(4), 163–171. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gaost.2023.10.001
Jafari, M., Koocheki, A., & Milani, E. (2018). Physicochemical and sensory properties of extruded sorghum–wheat composite bread. Journal of Food Measurement and Characterization, 12(1), 370–377. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11694-017-9649-4
Karous, O., Jilani, I. B. H., & Ghrabi-Gammar, Z. (2021). Ethnobotanical study on plant used by semi-nomad descendants’ community in ouled dabbeb—southern Tunisia. Plants, 10(4), 642. https://doi.org/10.3390/plants10040642
Kertolli, E., Prosperi, P., Harbouze, R., Moussadek, R., Echchgadda, G., & Belhouchette, H. (2024). The water–energy–food–ecosystem nexus in North Africa dryland farming: a multi-criteria analysis of climate-resilient innovations in Morocco. Agricultural and Food Economics 2024 12:1, 12(1), 1–31. https://doi.org/10.1186/s40100-024-00327-5
Khodeir, M., El-Morshedy, R., & Abdelsalam, H. M. (2018). An Exploratory Simulation Model for Rice Consumption and Production in Egypt. SSRN Electronic Journal. https://doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.3389806
Kouki, M., Kallel, Z., & Turki, Z. (1989). La Cuisine Tunisienne d’Ommok Sannafa (M. Kouki & H. Jerbi (eds.)).
Kovatcheva-Datchary, P., Nilsson, A., Akrami, R., Lee, Y. S., De Vadder, F., Arora, T., Hallen, A., Martens, E., Björck, I., & Bäckhed, F. (2015). Dietary fiber-induced improvement in glucose metabolism is associated with increased abundance of Prevotella. Cell Metabolism, 22(6), 971–982. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cmet.2015.10.001
Lahouar, L., Ghrairi, F., El Arem, A., Medimagh, S., El Felah, M., Salem, H. Ben, & Achour, L. (2017). Biochemical composition and nutritional evaluation of barley rihane (Hordeum vulgare L.). African Journal of Traditional, Complementary and Alternative Medicines, 14(1), 310–317. https://doi.org/10.21010/ajtcam.v14i1.33
Mahgoub, S. A., & Badawy, S. A. (2015). Study of Agronomical and Technological Quality Characteristics of Some Special Egyptian Rice Varieties. Egypt. J. Agron, 37(1), 121–136. https://doi.org/10.21608/agro.2015.68
McCann, J. (2001). Maize and Grace: History, Corn, and Africa’s New Landscapes, 1500–1999. Comparative Studies in Society and History, 43(2), 246–272. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0010417501003486
Meera, M. S., Bhashyam, M. K., & Ali, S. Z. (2011). Effect of heat treatment of sorghum grains on storage stability of flour. LWT - Food Science and Technology, 44(10), 2199–2204. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.lwt.2011.05.020
Melih Secer, O., Guneser, B. A., & Guneser, O. (2020). Prediction of shelf-life and kinetics of quality changes in canned stuffed grape leaves. LWT, 132, 109850. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.lwt.2020.109850
Messia, M. C., Oriente, M., Angelicola, M., De Arcangelis, E., & Marconi, E. (2019). Development of functional couscous enriched in barley β-glucans. Journal of Cereal Science, 85, 137–142. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jcs.2018.12.007
Mohamed, A. H., Omar, A. A., Attya, A. M., Elashtokhy, M. M. A., Zayed, E. M., & Rizk, R. M. (2021). Morphological and molecular characterization of some egyptian six-rowed barley (Hordeum vulgare l.). Plants, 10(11), 2527. https://doi.org/10.3390/plants10112527
Mohamed, M. E., Lehto, X. Y., & Behnke, C. (2024). Visitors’ and non-visitors’ destination food images: How do they vary in Egypt? Tourism Management Perspectives, 51, 101241. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tmp.2024.101241
Morcos, S. R., Hegazi, S. M., & El‐Damhougy, S. T. (1973). Fermented foods of common use in Egypt. II. The chemical composition of bouza and its ingredients. Journal of the Science of Food and Agriculture, 24(10), 1157–1161. https://doi.org/10.1002/jsfa.2740241003
Morreale, F., Angelino, D., & Pellegrini, N. (2018). Designing a Score-Based Method for the Evaluation of the Nutritional Quality of the Gluten-Free Bakery Products and their Gluten-Containing Counterparts. Plant Foods for Human Nutrition, 73(2), 154–159. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11130-018-0662-5
Moujabbir, S., Aboukhalaf, A., Kalili, A., Naciri, K., Sahel, K., Rocha, J. M., & Belahsen, R. (2023). Sourdoughs used in the preparation of traditional breads in the province of Figuig in eastern Morocco. International Journal of Food Studies, 12(1), 71–83. https://doi.org/10.7455/ijfs/12.1.2023.a5
Moukal, A. (2004). L’arganier, Argania spinosa L. (skeels), usage thérapeutique, cosmétique et alimentaire*. Phytotherapie 2004 2:5, 2(5), 135–141. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10298-004-0041-2
Noort, M. W. J., Renzetti, S., Linderhof, V., du Rand, G. E., Marx-Pienaar, N. J. M. M., de Kock, H. L., Magano, N., & Taylor, J. R. N. (2022). Towards Sustainable Shifts to Healthy Diets and Food Security in Sub-Saharan Africa with Climate-Resilient Crops in Bread-Type Products: A Food System Analysis. Foods, 11(2). https://doi.org/10.3390/foods11020135
Ogunsakin, O., Banwo, K., Ogunremi, O., & Sanni, A. (2015). Microbiological and physicochemical properties of sourdough bread from sorghum flour. International Food Research Journal.
Palmer, S. A., Moore, J. D., Clapham, A. J., Rose, P., & Allaby, R. G. (2009). Archaeogenetic Evidence of Ancient Nubian Barley Evolution from Six to Two-Row Indicates Local Adaptation. PLOS ONE, 4(7), e6301. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0006301
Pasqualone, A. (2018). Traditional flat breads spread from the Fertile Crescent: Production process and history of baking systems. Journal of Ethnic Foods, 5(1), 10–19. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jef.2018.02.002
Perraulta Lavanya, J., Gowthamraj, G., & Sangeetha, N. (2021). Effect of heat moisture treatment on the physicochemical, functional, and antioxidant characteristics of white sorghum (Sorghum bicolor (L.) grains and flour. Journal of Food Processing and Preservation, 45(12), e16017. https://doi.org/10.1111/jfpp.16017
Perri, G., Minisci, A., Montemurro, M., Pontonio, E., Verni, M., & Rizzello, C. G. (2023). Exploitation of sprouted barley grains and flour through sourdough fermentation. LWT, 187, 115326. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.lwt.2023.115326
Piechota, U., Czembor, P. C., & Czembor, J. H. (2020). Evaluating barley landraces collected in North Africa and the Middle East for powdery mildew infection at seedling and adult plant stages. Cereal Research Communications, 48(2), 179–185. https://doi.org/10.1007/s42976-020-00021-4
Raj, R., Shams, R., Pandey, V. K., Dash, K. K., Singh, P., & Bashir, O. (2023). Barley phytochemicals and health promoting benefits: A comprehensive review. Journal of Agriculture and Food Research, 14. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jafr.2023.100677
Ramadan, A. A. S. (1986). Some characteristics of Egyptian balady bread as affected by partial substitution of maize flour. Food / Nahrung, 30(7), 663–666. https://doi.org/10.1002/food.19860300703
Reardon, T., Tschirley, D., Liverpool-Tasie, L. S. O., Awokuse, T., Fanzo, J., Minten, B., Vos, R., Dolislager, M., Sauer, C., Dhar, R., Vargas, C., Lartey, A., Raza, A., & Popkin, B. M. (2021). The processed food revolution in African food systems and the double burden of malnutrition. Global Food Security, 28. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gfs.2020.100466
Reed, K., & Leleković, T. (2019). First evidence of rice (Oryza cf. sativa L.) and black pepper (Piper nigrum) in Roman Mursa. Croatia Archaeol Anthropol Sci, 11(1), 271–278. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12520-017-0545-y
Saddoud Debbabi, O., Ben Slimane, M., Ben Hadj Alouane, R. B., Montemurro, C., Snoussi, H., & Miazzi, M. M. (2024). Traditional Foods as a Way to Preserve the Genetic Diversity of the Grapevine (Vitis vinifera) in Tunisia. Horticulturae 2024, Vol. 10, Page 423, 10(4), 423. https://doi.org/10.3390/horticulturae10040423
Salih, G., Jilal, A., Garcia, M. S., & Visioni, A. (2022). Food Barley in North Africa: state of art and opportunities for development. African and Mediterranean Agricultural Journal - Al Awamia, (137), 41–64. https://doi.org/10.34874/imist.prsm/afrimed-i137.36761
Schober, T. J., Bean, S. R., & Boyle, D. L. (2007). Gluten-free sorghum bread improved by sourdough fermentation: Biochemical, rheological, and microstructural background. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry, 55(13), 5137–5146. https://doi.org/10.1021/jf0704155
Shaikh, M., Sunooj, K. V., Rahman, M. H., Navaf, M., & Ali, T. M. (2024). Lentils: A Recent Review on Global Trade and Popular Regional Cuisines. Legume Science, 6(3), e252. https://doi.org/10.1002/leg3.252
Shao, Y., Mu, B., Xu, L., & Yang, Y. (2024). A green and sustainable technology for the development of artificial protein fibers from sorghum distillers grains for industrialization. Chemical Engineering Journal, 502, 157853. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cej.2024.157853
Shopov, A. (2019). Cities of rice: risiculture and environmental change in the Early Modern Ottoman Balkans. Levant, 51(2), 169–183. https://doi.org/10.1080/00758914.2020.1807127
Singh, A., Sharma, S., Dar, B. N., & Boukid, F. (2024). Pigmented Grains: Nutritional Properties, Bioactive Potential, and Food Application, 1–387. https://doi.org/10.1016/C2022-0-01982-6
Snodgrass, S. J., & Hufford, M. B. (2018). Domestication Genomics: Untangling the Complex History of African Rice. Current Biology, 28(14), R786–R788. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cub.2018.05.072
Soto-Gómez, D., & Pérez-Rodríguez, P. (2022). Sustainable agriculture through perennial grains: Wheat, rice, maize, and other species. A review. Agriculture, Ecosystems & Environment, 325, 107747. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.agee.2021.107747
Spengler, R. N., Stark, S., Zhou, X., Fuks, D., Tang, L., Mir-Makhamad, B., Bjørn, R., Jiang, H., Olivieri, L. M., Begmatov, A., & Boivin, N. (2021). A Journey to the West: The Ancient Dispersal of Rice Out of East Asia. Rice, 14(1), 1–18. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12284-021-00518-4
Storck, C. R., Fortes, C. R., Halal, S. L. M. El, Ribeiro, J. D., Montagner, G. E., Fonseca, L. M., Zavareze, E. da R., & Dias, A. R. G. (2021). Different reaction times for phosphorylation of sorghum flour (Sorghum bicolor): Physicochemical evaluation and application in the formulation of gluten-free cakes. Food Bioscience, 44, 101441. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fbio.2021.101441
Swesi, R., El-Anis, I., & Islam, M. M. (2020). Food insecurity coping strategies in conflict-affected Libya. Development in Practice, 30(3), 394–408. https://doi.org/10.1080/09614524.2019.1694644
Tadesse, S. A., Beri, G. B., & Abera, S. (2019). Chemical and sensory quality of sorghum-based extruded product supplemented with defatted soy meal flour. Cogent Food & Agriculture, 5(1). https://doi.org/10.1080/23311932.2019.1653617
Tagliasco, M., Font, G., Renzetti, S., Capuano, E., & Pellegrini, N. (2024). Role of particle size in modulating starch digestibility and textural properties in a rye bread model system. Food Research International, 190, 114565. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodres.2024.114565
Tiozon, R. J. N., Bonto, A. P., & Sreenivasulu, N. (2021). Enhancing the functional properties of rice starch through biopolymer blending for industrial applications: A review. International Journal of Biological Macromolecules, 192, 100–117. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijbiomac.2021.09.194
USDA. (2024). IPAD. https://ipad.fas.usda.gov/countrysummary
Wasylikowa, K., & Dahlberg, J. (1999). Sorghum in the Economy of the Early Neolithic Nomadic Tribes at Nabta Playa, Southern Egypt. The Exploitation of Plant Resources in Ancient Africa, 11–31. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4757-6730-8_2
Wasylikowa, K., Mitka, J., Wendorf, F., & Schild, R. (1997). Exploitation of wild plants by the early Neolithic hunter-gatherers of the Western Desert, Egypt: Nabta Playa as a case-study. Antiquity, 71(274), 932–941. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0003598X00085835
Westengen, O. T., Okongo, M. A., Onek, L., Berg, T., Upadhyaya, H., Birkeland, S., Khalsa, S. D. K., Ring, K. H., Stenseth, N. C., & Brysting, A. K. (2014). Ethnolinguistic structuring of sorghum genetic diversity in Africa and the role of local seed systems. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 111(39), 14100–14105. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1401646111
Zhang, Y., Xu, J., Park, J., & Kim, H.-S. (2023). Rice-Based Gluten-Free Foods and Technologies: A Review. Foods 2023, Vol. 12, Page 4110, 12(22), 4110. https://doi.org/10.3390/foods12224110
Zhou, W., Hui, Y. H., De Leyn, I., Pagani, M. A., Rosell, C. M., Selman, J. D., & Therdthai, N. (2014). Bakery Products Science and Technology: Second Edition, 9781119967156, 1–761. https://doi.org/10.1002/9781118792001
Authors
Boukid, F., & Mameri, H. (2025). The Role of Barley, Sorghum, Rice, and Maize in North African Cuisine. The North African Journal of Food and Nutrition Research, 9(20), 31–48. https://doi.org/10.51745/najfnr.9.20.31-48
Copyright (c) 2025 Fatma Boukid, Hamza Mameri
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.
-
Attribution — You must give appropriate credit, provide a link to the license, and indicate if changes were made. You may do so in any reasonable manner, but not in any way that suggests the licensor endorses you or your use.
-
No additional restrictions — You may not apply legal terms or technological measures that legally restrict others from doing anything the license permits.
